Monsoons in India
Monsoons are periodic winds which blow from sea to land for six months in summer and from land to sea for six months in winter. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons.
South-West Monsoons: These are rain-bearing winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. During summer, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer making the Indian plains intensely hot. But the rays of the sun fall obliquely over the Indian Ocean during this period. The land is hotter than the sea, there is, therefore, low pressure over the land and high pressure over the sea. The winds blow from high to low pressure i.e., from the sea to the land, and are therefore wet winds. Because of the rotation of the earth, the monsoon winds blowing over India deflect to the right after crossing the Equator and become south-west winds. These are, therefore, called south-west monsoons.
India depends largely on these rain-bearing south-west winds. These winds give to India about 90% of the total rainfall. During their prevalence, the chief crops cultivated are rice, cotton, tobacco, tea, jawar and bajra.
North-East Monsoons (or Winter Monsoons): During the months of November to January i.e., in winter, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn. The air over the Indian Ocean during this period thus becomes hot and light and there is low pressure. The sun’s rays fall obliquely on the plains of India during these months with the result that the air over these plains is cold and heavy and there is high pressure. The winds, therefore, blow from plains to the Indian Ocean. While crossing the Equator, they deflect to the left and are known as north-east monsoons.
The North-East Monsoons bring only about 10% of the total rain to India as they are chilly and dry land winds. But the moisture that they pick from the Bay of Bengal, little as it is, is very useful. Wheat, barley, oats, oilseeds and sugarcane are cultivated during this season.
Thus these monsoon winds have much importance for India.
Weather and Climate
Weather means the atmospheric conditions e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity, winds, sunshine and cloudiness of a particular place on a particular day. Climate, on the other hand, is the average condition of weather obtaining in a country or a place for a considerable period.
India has a great diversity of climatic conditions. Lying largely within the tropics and in the great Asiatic Continent and the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean to the South, the climate of India is essentially the tropical monsoon type. The average annual rainfall in India is 42 inches.
Monday, January 16, 2012
Geography of India: India's territory drains
More than 70 percent of India's territory drains into the Bay of Bengal via the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system and a number of large and small peninsular rivers.
The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system
The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the country's Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country's other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the Bhagirathi River, rises at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) at the foot of the Gangotri Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.
Areas draining into the Arabian Sea, accounting for about 20 percent of the total, lie partially within the Indus drainage basin (in northwestern India) and partially
within a completely separate set of drainage basins well to the south (in Gujarat,estern Madhya Pradesh, northern Maharashtra, and areas west of the Western Ghats).
Most of the remaining area, less than 10 percent of the total, lies in regions of interior drainage, notably in the Great Indian Desert of Rajasthan state (another is in the Aksai Chin, a barren plateau in a portion of Kashmir administered by China but claimed by India). Finally, less than 1 percent of India's area, along the border with Myanmar, drains into the Andaman Sea via tributaries of the Irrawaddy River.
Drainage into the Bay of Bengal
The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system
The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the country's Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country's other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the Bhagirathi River, rises at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) at the foot of the Gangotri Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system
The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the country's Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country's other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the Bhagirathi River, rises at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) at the foot of the Gangotri Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.
The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system
The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the country's Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country's other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the Bhagirathi River, rises at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) at the foot of the Gangotri Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.Lakes and inland drainage
Resort house on Wular Lake in the Vale of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir state, India.
For such a large country, India has few natural lakes. Most of the lakes in the Himalayas were formed when glaciers either dug out a basin or dammed an area with earth and rocks. Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, by contrast, is the result of a tectonic depression. Although its area fluctuates, Wular Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake in India.Saturday, January 14, 2012
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The Earth—Its Motions and their Effects
The earth has two motions, viz., (1) Rotation around its axis or the daily motion. The axis of the earth is an imaginary line inclined at 66.5° to the plane of the orbit of the earth. The earth rotates round its axis from west to east once in 24 hours. Effects: Days and nights are caused. The sun, moon and other heavenly bodies appear to revolve round the earth from east to west. Direction of winds and currents is changed.
(2) Revolution round the sun on its orbit, or the annual motion: The earth revolves round the sun once in about 365.25 days. Effects: It causes seasons; days and nights are of unequal length at the same place.
Important elements in the earth’s crust
The five most abundant elements in the earth’s crust are: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron and Calcium. (The other three are Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.)
Oceans—Their Importance
Oceans are the source of all water on earth as the evaporated water from over their surface is brought to earth by the winds passing over them. They are the highways of the world and most of the world trade is carried through the sea. Innumerable fish and other animals living in the oceans are a great source of food to mankind. Minerals like salt, iodine etc. are derived from the ocean waters and sea-weeds.
Ocean Currents: are rivers of warm or cold water flowing in an ocean. Their banks and beds also consist of water.
Natural Regions
A natural region is a large area in which the topography, climate and vegetation are largely similar, and therefore there is a certain uniformity in human activities.
Natural Regions of the World
(1) Equatorial Region (2) Hot-Grassland Region (3) Monsoon Region (4) Hot Deserts Region (5) Mediterranean Region (6) Steppe Region (7) Tundra Region (8) Warm Temperate Region (9) Cool Temperate Region.
Natural Regions of India
(1) The Himalayas and the adjacent mountains; (2) The Sutlej-Ganga plains; (3) The coastal plains of Western and Eastern ghats; (4) The Deccan plateau.
Factors Determining Climate of a Place
(1) Distance from the Equator (2) Height above sea-level (3) Distance from the sea (4) Winds (5) Direction of Mountains (6) Ocean currents (7) Slope of land (8) Nature of the soil (9) Forests.
Factors Determining Temperature
(i) sun rays, (ii) height above sea-level (iii) movements of atmospheric winds, (iv) ocean currents.
Rainfall
Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea.
Monsoons in India
Monsoons are periodic winds which blow from sea to land for six months in summer and from land to sea for six months in winter. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons.
South-West Monsoons: These are rain-bearing winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. During summer, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer making the Indian plains intensely hot. But the rays of the sun fall obliquely over the Indian Ocean during this period. The land is hotter than the sea, there is, therefore, low pressure over the land and high pressure over the sea. The winds blow from high to low pressure i.e., from the sea to the land, and are therefore wet winds. Because of the rotation of the earth, the monsoon winds blowing over India deflect to the right after crossing the Equator and become south-west winds. These are, therefore, called south-west monsoons.
India depends largely on these rain-bearing south-west winds. These winds give to India about 90% of the total rainfall. During their prevalence, the chief crops cultivated are rice, cotton, tobacco, tea, jawar and bajra.
North-East Monsoons (or Winter Monsoons): During the months of November to January i.e., in winter, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn. The air over the Indian Ocean during this period thus becomes hot and light and there is low pressure. The sun’s rays fall obliquely on the plains of India during these months with the result that the air over these plains is cold and heavy and there is high pressure. The winds, therefore, blow from plains to the Indian Ocean. While crossing the Equator, they deflect to the left and are known as north-east monsoons.
The North-East Monsoons bring only about 10% of the total rain to India as they are chilly and dry land winds. But the moisture that they pick from the Bay of Bengal, little as it is, is very useful. Wheat, barley, oats, oilseeds and sugarcane are cultivated during this season.
Thus these monsoon winds have much importance for India.
Weather and Climate
Weather means the atmospheric conditions e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity, winds, sunshine and cloudiness of a particular place on a particular day. Climate, on the other hand, is the average condition of weather obtaining in a country or a place for a considerable period.
India has a great diversity of climatic conditions. Lying largely within the tropics and in the great Asiatic Continent and the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean to the South, the climate of India is essentially the tropical monsoon type. The average annual rainfall in India is 42 inches.
Types of Soil in India
The main categories of soils in India are: (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils (iii) Red soils (iv) Laterite soils (v) Mountain and hill soils (vi) Terai soils (vii) Desert (or Arid) soil and (viii) Peat soils.
Alluvial soil and Black soil
Alluvial soil is that soil which is formed by deposition of silts brought down by the rivers. It is rich in hydrated oxides of iron and is very fertile. Black soil or the black cotton soil has a good water-holding capacity and is best suited for deep-rooted crops like cotton. The black soil in wet condition is compact and sticky.
The most extensive soil cover of India comprises alluvial soils.
Soil Erosion: The soils are usually six to twelve inches in depth. In course of time, the fertility level of the soil is depleted with the result that the soil no longer remains suitable for agriculture. Soil conservation is, therefore, necessary for continued agricultural prosperity.
The agencies of erosion are winds, water and waves of which the water erosion is most common. Rain water removes soil from the surface of sloping lands. Winds remove top soil of lands.
Laterite soils are formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. These can be distinguished from other soils by their acidity. Laterite soils are generally poor on the higher levels and cannot retain moisture. In the plains, however, they consist of heavy loams and clay and can retain moisture.
Laterite soils occur in Madhya Pradesh, Assam and along the Eastern and Western Ghats. Tea plantation requires acidity which is there in the laterite soil. It is, therefore, common in these areas.
Star and Planet
Star is the name given to a fixed celestial body which has its own light whereas Planet is the name given to a celestial body which revolves round the sun in elliptical (regular oval shape) orbit. A planet has no light of its own but reflects the light of the sun.
Rocks
Three main groups of rocks: Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Classification of rocks
Igneous rocks: granite.
Sedimentary rocks: sandstone; limestone; shale; coal.
Metamorphic rocks: marble.
Phyllite: This rock is formed by deposits of animal shells and skeletons.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
Land Breeze: At night, land masses cool quicker than the sea. Therefore, in calm, cloudless weather, an air-stream passes from the land to the sea. This breeze carries no moisture, and is a little warm.
Sea Breeze: In day-time, the land is hotter than the sea. The air over it rises, and is replaced by a cool breeze from the sea carrying some moisture.
Tides
Alternate rise and fall of waters of the ocean twice in the course of nearly twenty four hours is termed as “tides”. The tides are caused by the gravitational force exerted by the moon and to a lesser degree by the sun, on the earth. The tides do not always rise to the same height. At the time of the new and full moon, when the sun and moon are in a straight line with the earth, the tides rise higher and are known as Spring Tides. Midway between new and full moon when the sun and the moon are at right angles as to their direction from the earth, tides are at the lowest height and are called Neap Tides.
Spring Tides and Neap Tides
When a high tide is caused twice a month at new moon and again when the moon is full, spring tide is caused as a result of combined attraction of the sun and the moon.
When the high tide is not so high, nor the low tide so low, neap tides are caused as a result of the difference of attraction of the sun and the moon.
Seasons
The change of seasons is due to (i) revolution of the earth round the sun (ii) inclination of earth’s axis at 66.5° to the plane of its orbit and always pointing to the same direction. On the 21st June, the North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the South Pole is inclined away from it. The rays of the sun fall perpendicularly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North) and fall comparatively slanting in the southern hemisphere. Hence the days are longer than nights in the northern hemisphere and it is summer there. Just opposite is the case in the southern hemisphere where the nights are longer at that time and it is winter there.
Latitudes and Longitudes
India lies entirely to the north of the Equator, between latitudes 8°-4´ and 37°-6´ north and longitude 68°-7´ and 97°-25´ east.
The latitude of the South Pole is 90°. South Pole has no longitude.
Longitude of a place is its distance east or west of a fixed meridian. The distance of any place north or south of the Equator is called the Latitude of that place.
Parallels of latitude: are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the latitude of a place.
Meridians (or lines) of longitude: These are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the longitude of a place. These lines join the north and south pole cutting the Equator at right angles.
(Latitudes and Longitudes should be clearly distinguished from Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude respectively.)
By knowing these lines, we can find out exact location of a place. By knowing the latitude of a place we can find out its average temperature, as also its distance from the Equator. By knowing the longitude of a place, we can calculate its local time.
Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian. The earth rotates upon its axis once in 24 hours and covers 360° in 24 hours. Thus it takes 60 x 24/360 or 4 minutes to cover a degree of longitude or we may say that in four minutes, the earth moves through 1°. There is thus a difference of 4 minutes for each degree of longitude. This fact is used for determining the longitude of a place. All longitudes are measured from the meridian of Greenwich.
We can determine the latitude of a place in the northern hemisphere by measuring the altitude of the Pole Star. The altitude of the Pole Star is the latitude of that place. For example, if the altitude of Pole Star at Delhi is 28.5° North, its latitude will also be 28.5°N. The altitude of Pole Star is measured by an instrument called Sextant.
Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the sun because of the passage of the moon in front of it i.e., when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.
The moon then appears as a dark object obscuring the sun. Over a small portion of the earth’s surface, the moon is seen to blot out the sun completely and a total eclipse is seen by the people in that particular area. But over most of the earth’s surface, the eclipse seen is partial because only a portion of the sun’s face remains covered by the moon.
Lunar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the moon’s surface when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon. The moon, when it moves through the shadow of the earth, loses its bright direct illumination by the sun, although its disc still remains faintly visible.
An eclipse of the moon is visible and presents the same features at all places on the earth where the moon is above the horizon. The lunar eclipse can be seen with the naked eye, field glass or a small telescope.
The lunar eclipse occurs at full moon only when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon which phenomenon does not occur at every full moon.
Indian Standard Time
The Indian Standard Time is a uniform time adopted by all palces in India without regard to their local time. It is usual for each country to have its standard time for use over the whole country as it would be very difficult if every town or village had its own local time and whenever we moved from one place to another, we should have to alter our watches.
Indian Standard Time is the local time of a place near Allahabad situated at 82.5° East longitude.
Winds
Air moving from one direction to another horizontally is called wind. It is the air in motion.
Cause of Wind: The chief cause of winds is difference in pressure. Air always moves from region of high pressure to a region of low pressure to equalize the pressure. For example, the low pressure belt round the Equator is a region of calm known as the doldrums. Although there are no regular winds there, violent squalls and thunderstorms are frequent which come from high pressure areas north and south of the Equator.
Direction of Winds: As the earth is rotating daily on its axis from west to east, all winds are deflected. According to Ferrel’s Law, winds are deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Characteristics of the important Wind Systems of the World:
1. Trade Winds: The rays of the sun fall almost vertically at the Equator and the air there becomes hot and the pressure is low. The air rises towards the Poles and descends near 30°N and 30°S. The pressure is high near 30°N and 30°S. Because winds blow from high-pressure to low-pressure areas, winds from over these altitudes blow towards the Equator and Trade Winds are caused.
2. Westerlies (or Anti-Trade Winds): are winds which blow from about 40 degrees N to the Arctic Circle and from about 35 degrees S to the Antarctic Circle throughout the year. They derive their name from the direction in which they blow. In the northern hemisphere they blow in the south-westerly direction and bring winter rain to the Mediterranean regions etc. In the southern hemisphere, they blow in a north-westerly direction.
3. Polar Winds: The winds which blow from the high pressure area around the poles towards the temperate regions are known as polar winds. They are extremely cold. They rise from the North West in the Northern Hemisphere and from the South East in the Southern Hemisphere.
4. Periodical Winds: These are (i) Land and Sea Breezes and (ii) Monsoons which blow in one direction at a particular time or during a particular season. In the hot season in India, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, i.e., roughly over the great plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra so that the air over the plains becomes very hot by about the month of May. At this time, South West Monsoon commences to blow. They bring heavy rains. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons. India depends on the rain-bearing south-west winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. These winds bring to India about 90% of all the rain that falls there.
5. Variable Winds: are the irregular winds as Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones.
Rainfall
There is heavy rainfall on the West coast because the Western Ghat ranges receive the full force of the monsoons from the Arabian sea and there is heavy rainfall (about 100 inches). On the other hand, the Deccan Plateau gets very scanty rainfall because it falls within the rain-shadow area.
Chennai gets winter rainfall as the north-east monsoons which blow in winter pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and bring rain to that city.
The Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to the eastern parts and then turn westwards. As Kolkata is in the east, it receives more rainfall. As the monsoons blow westwards they become drier and cause less rainfall. So Delhi does not get as much rainfall as Kolkata.
In the northern region, the Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to eastern parts and then turn westwards. As the monsoons blow westwards, they go on losing moisture and cause decreasing rainfall.
In the southern region, the Arabian Sea monsoons first strike the western ghats and the moisture is drained on the western side whereas rainfall goes on decreasing towards eastern region.
Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea.
The moisture-laden air is cooled in two ways: (i) by rising upward into colder upper regions of the atmosphere, (ii) by blowing as wind to colder regions.
Thus we see: (a) Moist air is lighter than dry air and so it readily rises, expands in a short time, cools and falls. (b) When warm winds blow towards cooler regions, it is condensed by cooling effect and rain falls. (c) The land masses or mountains also tend to condense water vapours. When moisture-laden wind is obstructed by mountains, it is forced to rise. As it rises, it becomes cool and rainfall results.
Rivers
The work of a river is three-fold:
(i) The Mountain Stage: The mountain or upper course of a river is swift as the slope at this stage of a river is steep. The main work of a river at this stage is denudation (wearing away). In this swift upper course, the rivers carry big stones, pebbles etc. which go on eroding the sides and beds of the valleys. As time goes on, the river cuts away the spurs on both sides and the valleys become wider and deeper. The mountain stage of the Ganges in India extends from its source up to Hardwar.
(ii) The Plain Stage: In this stage the river moves slowly as the slope is gradual and its main work is transportation (navigation) and irrigation. The plain stage of the Ganges extends from Hardwar to Bhagalpur.
(iii) The Delta Stage: This is the last stage and the rivers are very slow at this stage. In this slow lower or deltaic course, the main work of the river is deposition. The level of the bed at this stage rises due to mud and silt brought by it and deposited into several channels before falling into the sea. The Ganges forms her delta from Bhagalpur up to the sea.
The deltas are not formed at the mouths of rivers where tides carry away all the mud and silt deposited (at the mouth) e.g., the Narbada and the Tapti do not form any delta. Also rivers which deposit all their mud into the lakes through which they pass do not form delta e.g., the St Lawrence in Canada.
Estuary is formed at the mouth of a river where tidal effects are evident and where fresh water and sea water mix. In most cases it is due to subsidence of coastal low-land.
Delta is the triangular piece of land formed by the deposition of mud and silt near the mouth of a river. In the case of delta formation, more solid material is deposited which cannot be removed by tidal or other currents.
The rivers of Northern India are more important than those of Southern India because they have a flow of water throughout the year. Even in summer these rivers receive water from the melting of Himalayan snow. Flowing through broad basins, they form large tracts or rich alluvial soil on either side. It is no wonder, therefore, that their fertile basin are the natural grannaries of the country. Further, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra are navigable and provide excellent waterways for commerce. The Peninsular rivers, on the other hand, have water during the monsoons but shrivel into muddy pools in the dry season. These rivers are of little use for navigation on account of their torrential nature in the upper course, and the rapids that occur where they descend into deep gorges from the table land to the coastal plains.
Climate and Vegetation
The Equatorial type climate, in which the temperature remains high all the year round but does not vary much, produces hot, wet forests.
The Tropical type climate produces grasslands which are found on either side of the equatorial belt where the rainfall usually occurs soon after the sun has been shining vertically while the dry season occurs in the colder part of the year.
The lowlands along the Tropic of Cancer lie mainly in the high-pressure belt just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from these lowlands towards the Equator and the Westerly winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are, therefore, no winds to bring rain to this region. Some of these lowlands are dry because these are very very far from the sea, like centre of Asia. There are few clouds and very little rain with the result that the sun’s rays strike straight on the ground and make the days very hot.
The temperature of the ocean varies much less than that of land because (i) water has a higher specific heat than land with the result that it both absorbs and loses heat slowly as compared to land; and (ii) due to large surface of water at sea more evaporation occurs than on land. Evaporation causes cooling and this results in the sea having a lower temperature than that on land.
We may divide India into two parts for the purpose of climatological studies: (1) peninsular India and (2) Northern India. Peninsular India has the characteristic of tropical climate where “the temperature is uniformly high and seasonal variation relatively low”.
The climatic conditions in Northern India have no general similarity. This region lies beyond the Tropic of Cancer. The Western part of it includes East Punjab and Rajasthan where air is devoid of moisture and it is hot in summer and very cold in winter. The eastern part of this region includes U.P., Bihar, Assam and West Bengal. Here winter is mild and summer is very hot with plenty of moisture in the air.
These climatic conditions are however, disturbed by two Monsoon Currents—the South West Monsoon and the North-East Monsoon. The South-West Monsoon causes heavy rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and U.P. It begins to retreat from Northern India in early October and this retreat is completed by mid-December. During this retreat period the weather in Northern India becomes dry.
The North-East monsoons begin in January and last till March. These winds cause light rain in Northern India, particularly in the Punjab plains. This scanty rainfall is very important for Rabi crops.
Vegetation: Agriculture is the most important occupation of the people of India. In Northern India, typical monsoon land crops are grown such as rice in Bengal with its warm and humid climate; wheat and maize in Northern plains, Punjab and U.P.; jute in Bengal and Assam and tea in Assam.
In Peninsular India where regur or black cotton soil is found and sufficient moisture available, cotton is grown. It is the chief crop of the Deccan Peninsula—Mumbai and Berar being the chief producers. Coffee is grown on the Nilgiris in the South.
Climatic Effect: India has on the whole monsoon-tropical climate: ‘Monsoon—lands are dominated by the winds from sea to land in summer—the wet season and by winds from land to sea in winter—the dry season.’ This type of climate is not very conducive to health and vigour. Man’s well-being in such a climate depends largely on rainfall. The agricultural products do not grow if the monsoon fails and famine conditions break out. This dependence on rain, however, is not absolute owing to development of irrigation by means of projects, canals, wells etc.
The desert type climate is hot and dry. The rainfall is scanty, not more than 10 inches a year. The day and night temperatures vary to much extent. The evenings and afternoons are marked by hot dust storms.
The regions lie mainly in the high-pressure belts just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from them towards the Equator and the Westerly Winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are no winds which bring rain to this region and the climate remains hot and dry.
Mediterranean Climate
It is the type of climate experienced by the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and also by other regions, in both hemispheres, situated in a similar geographical position. The characteristic features are warmth of the summer, mildness of the winter, and ample sunshine.
The entire west coast of the United States has Mediterranean type of climate because this region gets winter rainfall from “Westerlies” winds.
Irrigation
Methods of Irrigation: The various systems of irrigation used in India are: (1) Canals; (2) Wells; (3) Tube-wells; and (4) Tanks.
Canals: Canals are the most important of the systems of irrigation in India because:
(i) the rivers are snow-fed and never run dry; (ii) the plain has a soft and alluvial soil, so canals can be easily dug; (iii) the rainfall is insufficient for irrigation and wells alone cannot satisfy the needs of agriculturists.
Of the total irrigated land in India, 40 per cent is irrigated by canals.
Wells: Wells are found all over India but these are largely used in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar. They are also used in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The reason for irrigation by wells is that the soil is porous and after a rainfall, water is stored up below the soil, and wells can be easily sunk.
Tube-wells: Irrigation by tube-wells has become very popular these days. Tube-wells are worked by electric power. These are much deeper than the ordinary wells. Due to shortage of power, the agriculturists do face the difficulty in running the tube-wells as and when they require but the prosperous ones are making use of the diesel engines for the purpose.
Tanks: Tanks are used in the Deccan plateau—especially in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some parts of Madhya Pradesh. They are made by filling natural hollows with water or by building dams across the river valleys. As the soil is rocky in these areas, it is not easy to sink wells. The soil is not porous and the rain water flows off; Canals cannot be constructed as the rivers are not snow-fed. So the tanks are the chief means of irrigation in the Deccan plateau.
Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Volcanoes: By the pressure of the earth’s crust the hot matter or lava in the interior of the earth is pressed down. It gushes out through a crack or a hole when it finds a weak spot in the crust and begins to accumulate round it. By and by it cools down and solidifies and in the course of several years these accumulated layers of lava build up a conical mountain. Such lava mountains are called volcanoes.
Volcanoes are also formed when rain or sea water percolates in the soil and sinks deep down into the earth where it is converted into steam by the internal heat and forces its way out of the crust bringing with it large quantity of lava etc.
Earthquakes: (i) When an active volcano bursts with great force or when a dormant volcano erupts into activity, the surrounding areas feel tremors and earthquake is caused. (ii) When the interior part of the earth cools down and contracts, the outer crust cracks or a part of it actually drops down causing earthquake. (iii) Sometimes water percolates deep down into the earth and is converted into steam on account of internal heat. This steam forces its way out by expanding and thus causes earthquake shocks.
Fold and Block Mountains
Fold Mountains: These are formed as a result of series of earthquakes by which in course of a long time, rocks are folded up above the general level and the agents of denudation start to wear them away. The Himalayas, the Andes, the Alps are example of Fold Mountains.
Block Mountains: the formation of mountains when a mass of land is pushed up between several cracks, is known as Block Mountains as shown in the figure below. The narrow piece of the crust led down between two parallel cracks forms what is called “Rift Valley”.
Mountain Ranges
Himalayas: The Himalayan ranges stretch for about 2400 km from the eastern extremity of Assam to the western limit of Kashmir. Their width varies from 150 km to 450 km. These are fold mountains and consist of long lines of folded ranges.
Arvalies: It stretches from Gujarat in the west to Delhi in the north.
Indian Plateau: It is the table-land region of the Deccan lying south of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is bounded on the north by the ranges of Vindhyas and the Satpuras running east to west.
Vindhyas and Satpura: The Vindhyas lie north of the Narbada Valley, whereas the Satpuras Range lies south. Satpura ranges are an example of Volcanic mountains.
Western Ghats: In the west, the plateau is margined by the Western Ghats which rise abruptly from the Malabar and the Konkan coasts and run parallel to the sea coast with an average height of 1200 metres.
Eastern Ghats: Towards the east are broken Eastern Ghats which descend to the low-lands of the Coromandal coast and are broken by a number of rivers, the most important of which are the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Penner and Cauvery. These rivers flow south-east across the plateau to the Bay of Bengal.
The earth has two motions, viz., (1) Rotation around its axis or the daily motion. The axis of the earth is an imaginary line inclined at 66.5° to the plane of the orbit of the earth. The earth rotates round its axis from west to east once in 24 hours. Effects: Days and nights are caused. The sun, moon and other heavenly bodies appear to revolve round the earth from east to west. Direction of winds and currents is changed.
(2) Revolution round the sun on its orbit, or the annual motion: The earth revolves round the sun once in about 365.25 days. Effects: It causes seasons; days and nights are of unequal length at the same place.
Important elements in the earth’s crust
The five most abundant elements in the earth’s crust are: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron and Calcium. (The other three are Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.)
Oceans—Their Importance
Oceans are the source of all water on earth as the evaporated water from over their surface is brought to earth by the winds passing over them. They are the highways of the world and most of the world trade is carried through the sea. Innumerable fish and other animals living in the oceans are a great source of food to mankind. Minerals like salt, iodine etc. are derived from the ocean waters and sea-weeds.
Ocean Currents: are rivers of warm or cold water flowing in an ocean. Their banks and beds also consist of water.
Natural Regions
A natural region is a large area in which the topography, climate and vegetation are largely similar, and therefore there is a certain uniformity in human activities.
Natural Regions of the World
(1) Equatorial Region (2) Hot-Grassland Region (3) Monsoon Region (4) Hot Deserts Region (5) Mediterranean Region (6) Steppe Region (7) Tundra Region (8) Warm Temperate Region (9) Cool Temperate Region.
Natural Regions of India
(1) The Himalayas and the adjacent mountains; (2) The Sutlej-Ganga plains; (3) The coastal plains of Western and Eastern ghats; (4) The Deccan plateau.
Factors Determining Climate of a Place
(1) Distance from the Equator (2) Height above sea-level (3) Distance from the sea (4) Winds (5) Direction of Mountains (6) Ocean currents (7) Slope of land (8) Nature of the soil (9) Forests.
Factors Determining Temperature
(i) sun rays, (ii) height above sea-level (iii) movements of atmospheric winds, (iv) ocean currents.
Rainfall
Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea.
Monsoons in India
Monsoons are periodic winds which blow from sea to land for six months in summer and from land to sea for six months in winter. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons.
South-West Monsoons: These are rain-bearing winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. During summer, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer making the Indian plains intensely hot. But the rays of the sun fall obliquely over the Indian Ocean during this period. The land is hotter than the sea, there is, therefore, low pressure over the land and high pressure over the sea. The winds blow from high to low pressure i.e., from the sea to the land, and are therefore wet winds. Because of the rotation of the earth, the monsoon winds blowing over India deflect to the right after crossing the Equator and become south-west winds. These are, therefore, called south-west monsoons.
India depends largely on these rain-bearing south-west winds. These winds give to India about 90% of the total rainfall. During their prevalence, the chief crops cultivated are rice, cotton, tobacco, tea, jawar and bajra.
North-East Monsoons (or Winter Monsoons): During the months of November to January i.e., in winter, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn. The air over the Indian Ocean during this period thus becomes hot and light and there is low pressure. The sun’s rays fall obliquely on the plains of India during these months with the result that the air over these plains is cold and heavy and there is high pressure. The winds, therefore, blow from plains to the Indian Ocean. While crossing the Equator, they deflect to the left and are known as north-east monsoons.
The North-East Monsoons bring only about 10% of the total rain to India as they are chilly and dry land winds. But the moisture that they pick from the Bay of Bengal, little as it is, is very useful. Wheat, barley, oats, oilseeds and sugarcane are cultivated during this season.
Thus these monsoon winds have much importance for India.
Weather and Climate
Weather means the atmospheric conditions e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity, winds, sunshine and cloudiness of a particular place on a particular day. Climate, on the other hand, is the average condition of weather obtaining in a country or a place for a considerable period.
India has a great diversity of climatic conditions. Lying largely within the tropics and in the great Asiatic Continent and the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean to the South, the climate of India is essentially the tropical monsoon type. The average annual rainfall in India is 42 inches.
Types of Soil in India
The main categories of soils in India are: (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils (iii) Red soils (iv) Laterite soils (v) Mountain and hill soils (vi) Terai soils (vii) Desert (or Arid) soil and (viii) Peat soils.
Alluvial soil and Black soil
Alluvial soil is that soil which is formed by deposition of silts brought down by the rivers. It is rich in hydrated oxides of iron and is very fertile. Black soil or the black cotton soil has a good water-holding capacity and is best suited for deep-rooted crops like cotton. The black soil in wet condition is compact and sticky.
The most extensive soil cover of India comprises alluvial soils.
Soil Erosion: The soils are usually six to twelve inches in depth. In course of time, the fertility level of the soil is depleted with the result that the soil no longer remains suitable for agriculture. Soil conservation is, therefore, necessary for continued agricultural prosperity.
The agencies of erosion are winds, water and waves of which the water erosion is most common. Rain water removes soil from the surface of sloping lands. Winds remove top soil of lands.
Laterite soils are formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. These can be distinguished from other soils by their acidity. Laterite soils are generally poor on the higher levels and cannot retain moisture. In the plains, however, they consist of heavy loams and clay and can retain moisture.
Laterite soils occur in Madhya Pradesh, Assam and along the Eastern and Western Ghats. Tea plantation requires acidity which is there in the laterite soil. It is, therefore, common in these areas.
Star and Planet
Star is the name given to a fixed celestial body which has its own light whereas Planet is the name given to a celestial body which revolves round the sun in elliptical (regular oval shape) orbit. A planet has no light of its own but reflects the light of the sun.
Rocks
Three main groups of rocks: Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Classification of rocks
Igneous rocks: granite.
Sedimentary rocks: sandstone; limestone; shale; coal.
Metamorphic rocks: marble.
Phyllite: This rock is formed by deposits of animal shells and skeletons.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
Land Breeze: At night, land masses cool quicker than the sea. Therefore, in calm, cloudless weather, an air-stream passes from the land to the sea. This breeze carries no moisture, and is a little warm.
Sea Breeze: In day-time, the land is hotter than the sea. The air over it rises, and is replaced by a cool breeze from the sea carrying some moisture.
Tides
Alternate rise and fall of waters of the ocean twice in the course of nearly twenty four hours is termed as “tides”. The tides are caused by the gravitational force exerted by the moon and to a lesser degree by the sun, on the earth. The tides do not always rise to the same height. At the time of the new and full moon, when the sun and moon are in a straight line with the earth, the tides rise higher and are known as Spring Tides. Midway between new and full moon when the sun and the moon are at right angles as to their direction from the earth, tides are at the lowest height and are called Neap Tides.
Spring Tides and Neap Tides
When a high tide is caused twice a month at new moon and again when the moon is full, spring tide is caused as a result of combined attraction of the sun and the moon.
When the high tide is not so high, nor the low tide so low, neap tides are caused as a result of the difference of attraction of the sun and the moon.
Seasons
The change of seasons is due to (i) revolution of the earth round the sun (ii) inclination of earth’s axis at 66.5° to the plane of its orbit and always pointing to the same direction. On the 21st June, the North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the South Pole is inclined away from it. The rays of the sun fall perpendicularly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North) and fall comparatively slanting in the southern hemisphere. Hence the days are longer than nights in the northern hemisphere and it is summer there. Just opposite is the case in the southern hemisphere where the nights are longer at that time and it is winter there.
Latitudes and Longitudes
India lies entirely to the north of the Equator, between latitudes 8°-4´ and 37°-6´ north and longitude 68°-7´ and 97°-25´ east.
The latitude of the South Pole is 90°. South Pole has no longitude.
Longitude of a place is its distance east or west of a fixed meridian. The distance of any place north or south of the Equator is called the Latitude of that place.
Parallels of latitude: are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the latitude of a place.
Meridians (or lines) of longitude: These are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the longitude of a place. These lines join the north and south pole cutting the Equator at right angles.
(Latitudes and Longitudes should be clearly distinguished from Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude respectively.)
By knowing these lines, we can find out exact location of a place. By knowing the latitude of a place we can find out its average temperature, as also its distance from the Equator. By knowing the longitude of a place, we can calculate its local time.
Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian. The earth rotates upon its axis once in 24 hours and covers 360° in 24 hours. Thus it takes 60 x 24/360 or 4 minutes to cover a degree of longitude or we may say that in four minutes, the earth moves through 1°. There is thus a difference of 4 minutes for each degree of longitude. This fact is used for determining the longitude of a place. All longitudes are measured from the meridian of Greenwich.
We can determine the latitude of a place in the northern hemisphere by measuring the altitude of the Pole Star. The altitude of the Pole Star is the latitude of that place. For example, if the altitude of Pole Star at Delhi is 28.5° North, its latitude will also be 28.5°N. The altitude of Pole Star is measured by an instrument called Sextant.
Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the sun because of the passage of the moon in front of it i.e., when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.
The moon then appears as a dark object obscuring the sun. Over a small portion of the earth’s surface, the moon is seen to blot out the sun completely and a total eclipse is seen by the people in that particular area. But over most of the earth’s surface, the eclipse seen is partial because only a portion of the sun’s face remains covered by the moon.
Lunar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the moon’s surface when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon. The moon, when it moves through the shadow of the earth, loses its bright direct illumination by the sun, although its disc still remains faintly visible.
An eclipse of the moon is visible and presents the same features at all places on the earth where the moon is above the horizon. The lunar eclipse can be seen with the naked eye, field glass or a small telescope.
The lunar eclipse occurs at full moon only when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon which phenomenon does not occur at every full moon.
Indian Standard Time
The Indian Standard Time is a uniform time adopted by all palces in India without regard to their local time. It is usual for each country to have its standard time for use over the whole country as it would be very difficult if every town or village had its own local time and whenever we moved from one place to another, we should have to alter our watches.
Indian Standard Time is the local time of a place near Allahabad situated at 82.5° East longitude.
Winds
Air moving from one direction to another horizontally is called wind. It is the air in motion.
Cause of Wind: The chief cause of winds is difference in pressure. Air always moves from region of high pressure to a region of low pressure to equalize the pressure. For example, the low pressure belt round the Equator is a region of calm known as the doldrums. Although there are no regular winds there, violent squalls and thunderstorms are frequent which come from high pressure areas north and south of the Equator.
Direction of Winds: As the earth is rotating daily on its axis from west to east, all winds are deflected. According to Ferrel’s Law, winds are deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Characteristics of the important Wind Systems of the World:
1. Trade Winds: The rays of the sun fall almost vertically at the Equator and the air there becomes hot and the pressure is low. The air rises towards the Poles and descends near 30°N and 30°S. The pressure is high near 30°N and 30°S. Because winds blow from high-pressure to low-pressure areas, winds from over these altitudes blow towards the Equator and Trade Winds are caused.
2. Westerlies (or Anti-Trade Winds): are winds which blow from about 40 degrees N to the Arctic Circle and from about 35 degrees S to the Antarctic Circle throughout the year. They derive their name from the direction in which they blow. In the northern hemisphere they blow in the south-westerly direction and bring winter rain to the Mediterranean regions etc. In the southern hemisphere, they blow in a north-westerly direction.
3. Polar Winds: The winds which blow from the high pressure area around the poles towards the temperate regions are known as polar winds. They are extremely cold. They rise from the North West in the Northern Hemisphere and from the South East in the Southern Hemisphere.
4. Periodical Winds: These are (i) Land and Sea Breezes and (ii) Monsoons which blow in one direction at a particular time or during a particular season. In the hot season in India, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, i.e., roughly over the great plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra so that the air over the plains becomes very hot by about the month of May. At this time, South West Monsoon commences to blow. They bring heavy rains. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons. India depends on the rain-bearing south-west winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. These winds bring to India about 90% of all the rain that falls there.
5. Variable Winds: are the irregular winds as Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones.
Rainfall
There is heavy rainfall on the West coast because the Western Ghat ranges receive the full force of the monsoons from the Arabian sea and there is heavy rainfall (about 100 inches). On the other hand, the Deccan Plateau gets very scanty rainfall because it falls within the rain-shadow area.
Chennai gets winter rainfall as the north-east monsoons which blow in winter pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and bring rain to that city.
The Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to the eastern parts and then turn westwards. As Kolkata is in the east, it receives more rainfall. As the monsoons blow westwards they become drier and cause less rainfall. So Delhi does not get as much rainfall as Kolkata.
In the northern region, the Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to eastern parts and then turn westwards. As the monsoons blow westwards, they go on losing moisture and cause decreasing rainfall.
In the southern region, the Arabian Sea monsoons first strike the western ghats and the moisture is drained on the western side whereas rainfall goes on decreasing towards eastern region.
Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea.
The moisture-laden air is cooled in two ways: (i) by rising upward into colder upper regions of the atmosphere, (ii) by blowing as wind to colder regions.
Thus we see: (a) Moist air is lighter than dry air and so it readily rises, expands in a short time, cools and falls. (b) When warm winds blow towards cooler regions, it is condensed by cooling effect and rain falls. (c) The land masses or mountains also tend to condense water vapours. When moisture-laden wind is obstructed by mountains, it is forced to rise. As it rises, it becomes cool and rainfall results.
Rivers
The work of a river is three-fold:
(i) The Mountain Stage: The mountain or upper course of a river is swift as the slope at this stage of a river is steep. The main work of a river at this stage is denudation (wearing away). In this swift upper course, the rivers carry big stones, pebbles etc. which go on eroding the sides and beds of the valleys. As time goes on, the river cuts away the spurs on both sides and the valleys become wider and deeper. The mountain stage of the Ganges in India extends from its source up to Hardwar.
(ii) The Plain Stage: In this stage the river moves slowly as the slope is gradual and its main work is transportation (navigation) and irrigation. The plain stage of the Ganges extends from Hardwar to Bhagalpur.
(iii) The Delta Stage: This is the last stage and the rivers are very slow at this stage. In this slow lower or deltaic course, the main work of the river is deposition. The level of the bed at this stage rises due to mud and silt brought by it and deposited into several channels before falling into the sea. The Ganges forms her delta from Bhagalpur up to the sea.
The deltas are not formed at the mouths of rivers where tides carry away all the mud and silt deposited (at the mouth) e.g., the Narbada and the Tapti do not form any delta. Also rivers which deposit all their mud into the lakes through which they pass do not form delta e.g., the St Lawrence in Canada.
Estuary is formed at the mouth of a river where tidal effects are evident and where fresh water and sea water mix. In most cases it is due to subsidence of coastal low-land.
Delta is the triangular piece of land formed by the deposition of mud and silt near the mouth of a river. In the case of delta formation, more solid material is deposited which cannot be removed by tidal or other currents.
The rivers of Northern India are more important than those of Southern India because they have a flow of water throughout the year. Even in summer these rivers receive water from the melting of Himalayan snow. Flowing through broad basins, they form large tracts or rich alluvial soil on either side. It is no wonder, therefore, that their fertile basin are the natural grannaries of the country. Further, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra are navigable and provide excellent waterways for commerce. The Peninsular rivers, on the other hand, have water during the monsoons but shrivel into muddy pools in the dry season. These rivers are of little use for navigation on account of their torrential nature in the upper course, and the rapids that occur where they descend into deep gorges from the table land to the coastal plains.
Climate and Vegetation
The Equatorial type climate, in which the temperature remains high all the year round but does not vary much, produces hot, wet forests.
The Tropical type climate produces grasslands which are found on either side of the equatorial belt where the rainfall usually occurs soon after the sun has been shining vertically while the dry season occurs in the colder part of the year.
The lowlands along the Tropic of Cancer lie mainly in the high-pressure belt just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from these lowlands towards the Equator and the Westerly winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are, therefore, no winds to bring rain to this region. Some of these lowlands are dry because these are very very far from the sea, like centre of Asia. There are few clouds and very little rain with the result that the sun’s rays strike straight on the ground and make the days very hot.
The temperature of the ocean varies much less than that of land because (i) water has a higher specific heat than land with the result that it both absorbs and loses heat slowly as compared to land; and (ii) due to large surface of water at sea more evaporation occurs than on land. Evaporation causes cooling and this results in the sea having a lower temperature than that on land.
We may divide India into two parts for the purpose of climatological studies: (1) peninsular India and (2) Northern India. Peninsular India has the characteristic of tropical climate where “the temperature is uniformly high and seasonal variation relatively low”.
The climatic conditions in Northern India have no general similarity. This region lies beyond the Tropic of Cancer. The Western part of it includes East Punjab and Rajasthan where air is devoid of moisture and it is hot in summer and very cold in winter. The eastern part of this region includes U.P., Bihar, Assam and West Bengal. Here winter is mild and summer is very hot with plenty of moisture in the air.
These climatic conditions are however, disturbed by two Monsoon Currents—the South West Monsoon and the North-East Monsoon. The South-West Monsoon causes heavy rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and U.P. It begins to retreat from Northern India in early October and this retreat is completed by mid-December. During this retreat period the weather in Northern India becomes dry.
The North-East monsoons begin in January and last till March. These winds cause light rain in Northern India, particularly in the Punjab plains. This scanty rainfall is very important for Rabi crops.
Vegetation: Agriculture is the most important occupation of the people of India. In Northern India, typical monsoon land crops are grown such as rice in Bengal with its warm and humid climate; wheat and maize in Northern plains, Punjab and U.P.; jute in Bengal and Assam and tea in Assam.
In Peninsular India where regur or black cotton soil is found and sufficient moisture available, cotton is grown. It is the chief crop of the Deccan Peninsula—Mumbai and Berar being the chief producers. Coffee is grown on the Nilgiris in the South.
Climatic Effect: India has on the whole monsoon-tropical climate: ‘Monsoon—lands are dominated by the winds from sea to land in summer—the wet season and by winds from land to sea in winter—the dry season.’ This type of climate is not very conducive to health and vigour. Man’s well-being in such a climate depends largely on rainfall. The agricultural products do not grow if the monsoon fails and famine conditions break out. This dependence on rain, however, is not absolute owing to development of irrigation by means of projects, canals, wells etc.
The desert type climate is hot and dry. The rainfall is scanty, not more than 10 inches a year. The day and night temperatures vary to much extent. The evenings and afternoons are marked by hot dust storms.
The regions lie mainly in the high-pressure belts just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from them towards the Equator and the Westerly Winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are no winds which bring rain to this region and the climate remains hot and dry.
Mediterranean Climate
It is the type of climate experienced by the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and also by other regions, in both hemispheres, situated in a similar geographical position. The characteristic features are warmth of the summer, mildness of the winter, and ample sunshine.
The entire west coast of the United States has Mediterranean type of climate because this region gets winter rainfall from “Westerlies” winds.
Irrigation
Methods of Irrigation: The various systems of irrigation used in India are: (1) Canals; (2) Wells; (3) Tube-wells; and (4) Tanks.
Canals: Canals are the most important of the systems of irrigation in India because:
(i) the rivers are snow-fed and never run dry; (ii) the plain has a soft and alluvial soil, so canals can be easily dug; (iii) the rainfall is insufficient for irrigation and wells alone cannot satisfy the needs of agriculturists.
Of the total irrigated land in India, 40 per cent is irrigated by canals.
Wells: Wells are found all over India but these are largely used in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar. They are also used in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The reason for irrigation by wells is that the soil is porous and after a rainfall, water is stored up below the soil, and wells can be easily sunk.
Tube-wells: Irrigation by tube-wells has become very popular these days. Tube-wells are worked by electric power. These are much deeper than the ordinary wells. Due to shortage of power, the agriculturists do face the difficulty in running the tube-wells as and when they require but the prosperous ones are making use of the diesel engines for the purpose.
Tanks: Tanks are used in the Deccan plateau—especially in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some parts of Madhya Pradesh. They are made by filling natural hollows with water or by building dams across the river valleys. As the soil is rocky in these areas, it is not easy to sink wells. The soil is not porous and the rain water flows off; Canals cannot be constructed as the rivers are not snow-fed. So the tanks are the chief means of irrigation in the Deccan plateau.
Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Volcanoes: By the pressure of the earth’s crust the hot matter or lava in the interior of the earth is pressed down. It gushes out through a crack or a hole when it finds a weak spot in the crust and begins to accumulate round it. By and by it cools down and solidifies and in the course of several years these accumulated layers of lava build up a conical mountain. Such lava mountains are called volcanoes.
Volcanoes are also formed when rain or sea water percolates in the soil and sinks deep down into the earth where it is converted into steam by the internal heat and forces its way out of the crust bringing with it large quantity of lava etc.
Earthquakes: (i) When an active volcano bursts with great force or when a dormant volcano erupts into activity, the surrounding areas feel tremors and earthquake is caused. (ii) When the interior part of the earth cools down and contracts, the outer crust cracks or a part of it actually drops down causing earthquake. (iii) Sometimes water percolates deep down into the earth and is converted into steam on account of internal heat. This steam forces its way out by expanding and thus causes earthquake shocks.
Fold and Block Mountains
Fold Mountains: These are formed as a result of series of earthquakes by which in course of a long time, rocks are folded up above the general level and the agents of denudation start to wear them away. The Himalayas, the Andes, the Alps are example of Fold Mountains.
Block Mountains: the formation of mountains when a mass of land is pushed up between several cracks, is known as Block Mountains as shown in the figure below. The narrow piece of the crust led down between two parallel cracks forms what is called “Rift Valley”.
Mountain Ranges
Himalayas: The Himalayan ranges stretch for about 2400 km from the eastern extremity of Assam to the western limit of Kashmir. Their width varies from 150 km to 450 km. These are fold mountains and consist of long lines of folded ranges.
Arvalies: It stretches from Gujarat in the west to Delhi in the north.
Indian Plateau: It is the table-land region of the Deccan lying south of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is bounded on the north by the ranges of Vindhyas and the Satpuras running east to west.
Vindhyas and Satpura: The Vindhyas lie north of the Narbada Valley, whereas the Satpuras Range lies south. Satpura ranges are an example of Volcanic mountains.
Western Ghats: In the west, the plateau is margined by the Western Ghats which rise abruptly from the Malabar and the Konkan coasts and run parallel to the sea coast with an average height of 1200 metres.
Eastern Ghats: Towards the east are broken Eastern Ghats which descend to the low-lands of the Coromandal coast and are broken by a number of rivers, the most important of which are the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Penner and Cauvery. These rivers flow south-east across the plateau to the Bay of Bengal.
Saturday, January 7, 2012
General Knowledge Questions
| No. | Question | Answer |
|---|---|---|
| 01 | The first Prime minister of Bangladesh was | Mujibur Rehman |
| 02 | The longest river in the world is the | Nile |
| 03 | The longest highway in the world is the | Trans-Canada |
| 04 | The longest highway in the world has a length of | About 8000 km |
| 05 | The highest mountain in the world is the | Everest |
| 06 | The country that accounts for nearly one third of the total teak production of the world is | Myanmar |
| 07 | The biggest desert in the world is the | Sahara desert |
| 08 | The largest coffee growing country in the world is | Brazil |
| 09 | The country also known as "country of Copper" is | Zambia |
| 10 | The name given to the border which separates Pakistan and Afghanistan is | Durand line |
| 11 | The river Volga flows out into the | Capsian sea |
| 12 | The coldest place on the earth is | Verkoyansk in Siberia |
| 13 | The country which ranks second in terms of land area is | Canada |
| 14 | The largest Island in the Mediterranean sea is | Sicily |
| 15 | The river Jordan flows out into the | Dead sea |
| 16 | The biggest delta in the world is the | Sunderbans |
| 17 | The capital city that stands on the river Danube is | Belgrade |
| 18 | The Japanese call their country as | Nippon |
| 19 | The length of the English channel is | 564 kilometres |
| 20 | The world's oldest known city is | Damascus |
| 21 | The city which is also known as the City of Canals is | Venice |
| 22 | The country in which river Wangchu flows is | Myanmar |
| 23 | The biggest island of the world is | Greenland |
| 24 | The city which is the biggest centre for manufacture of automobiles in the world is | Detroit, USA |
| 25 | The country which is the largest producer of manganese in the world is | USA |
| 26 | The country which is the largest producer of rubber in the world is | Malaysia |
| 27 | The country which is the largest producer of tin in the world is | Malaysia |
| 28 | The river which carries maximum quantity of water into the sea is the | Mississippi |
| 29 | The city which was once called the `Forbidden City' was | Peking |
| 30 | The country called the Land of Rising Sun is | Japan |
| 31 | Mount Everest was named after | Sir George Everest |
| 32 | The volcano Vesuvius is located in | Italy |
| 33 | The country known as the Sugar Bowl of the world is | Cuba |
| 34 | The length of the Suez Canal is | 162.5 kilometers |
| 35 | The lowest point on earth is | The coastal area of Dead sea |
| 36 | The Gurkhas are the original inhabitants of | Nepal |
| 37 | The largest ocean of the world is the | Pacific ocean |
| 38 | The largest bell in the world is the | Tsar Kolkol at Kremlin, Moscow |
| 39 | The biggest stadium in the world is the | Strahov Stadium, Prague |
| 40 | The world's largest diamond producing country is | South Africa |
| 41 | Australia was discovered by | James Cook |
| 42 | The first Governor General of Pakistan is | Mohammed Ali Jinnah |
| 43 | Dublin is situated at the mouth of river | Liffey |
| 44 | The earlier name of New York city was | New Amsterdam |
| 45 | The Eifel tower was built by | Alexander Eiffel |
| 46 | The Red Cross was founded by | Jean Henri Durant |
| 47 | The country which has the greatest population density is | Monaco |
| 48 | The national flower of Britain is | Rose |
| 49 | Niagara Falls was discovered by | Louis Hennepin |
| 50 | The national flower of Italy is | Lily |
| 51 | The national flower of China is | Narcissus |
| 52 | The permanent secretariat of the SAARC is located at | Kathmandu |
| 53 | The gateway to the Gulf of Iran is | Strait of Hormuz |
| 54 | The first Industrial Revolution took place in | England |
| 55 | World Environment Day is observed on | 5th June |
| 56 | The first Republican President of America was | Abraham Lincoln |
| 57 | The country famous for Samba dance is | Brazil |
| 58 | The name of Alexander's horse was | Beucephalus |
| 59 | Singapore was founded by | Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles |
| 60 | The famous British one-eyed Admiral was | Nelson |
| 61 | The earlier name of Sri Lanka was | Ceylon |
| 62 | The UNO was formed in the year | 1945 |
| 63 | UNO stands for | United Nations Organization |
| 64 | The independence day of South Korea is celebrated on | 15th August |
| 65 | `Last Judgement' was the first painting of an Italian painter named | Michelangelo |
| 66 | Paradise Regained was written by | John Milton |
| 67 | The first President of Egypt was | Mohammed Nequib |
| 68 | The first man to reach North Pole was | Rear Peary |
| 69 | The most famous painting of Pablo Picasso was | Guermica |
| 70 | The primary producer of newsprint in the world is | Canada |
| 71 | The first explorer to reach the South Pole was | Cap. Ronald Amundson |
| 72 | The person who is called the father of modern Italy is | G.Garibaldi |
| 73 | World literacy day is celebrated on | 8th September |
| 74 | The founder of modern Germany is | Bismarck |
| 75 | The country known as the land of the midnight sun is | Norway |
| 76 | The place known as the Roof of the world is | Tibet |
| 77 | The founder of the Chinese Republic was | San Yat Sen |
| 78 | The first Pakistani to receive the Nobel Prize was | Abdul Salam |
| 79 | The first woman Prime Minister of Britain was | Margaret Thatcher |
| 80 | The first Secretary General of the UNO was | Trygve Lie |
| 81 | The sculptor of the statue of Liberty was | Frederick Auguste Bartholdi |
| 82 | The port of Banku is situated in | Azerbaijan |
| 83 | John F Kennedy was assassinated by | Lee Harry Oswald |
| 84 | The largest river in France is | Lore |
| 85 | The Queen of England who married her brother-in-law was | Catherine of Aragon |
| 86 | The first negro to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize was | Ralph Johnson Bunche |
| 87 | The first British University to admit women for degree courses was | London University |
| 88 | The principal export of Jamaica is | Sugar |
| 89 | New York is popularly known as the city of | Skyscrapers |
| 90 | Madagascar is popularly known as the Island of | Cloves |
| 91 | The country known as the Land of White Elephant is | Thailand |
| 92 | The country known as the Land of Morning Calm is | Korea |
| 93 | The country known as the Land of Thunderbolts is | Bhutan |
| 94 | The highest waterfalls in the world is the | Salto Angel Falls, Venezuela |
| 95 | The largest library in the world is the | United States Library of Congress, Washington DC |
Important Institutions and its Headquarters
Education
● Commission of Scientific and Technical Words Terminology—New Delhi ● Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages—Hyderabad
● Institute of National Sanskrit—New Delhi
● National Sanskrit Vidyapeeth—Tirupati
● Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit Vidyapeeth—New Delhi
● Rashtriya Bal Bhavan—New Delhi
● Institute of Central Indian Language—Mysore
● Indian Council of Higher Research—Shimla
● Indian Institute of Social Sciences and Research—New Delhi
● Council of Indian Philosophy Research—New Delhi and Lucknow
● Indian Institute of Science—Bengaluru
● Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management—Gwalior
● Central Hindi Institute—Agra
Environmental Institutes
● Arid Zone Research Institute—Jodhpur ● Central Pollution Control Board—Delhi
● Central Museum Authority—New Delhi
● Rehabilitation Institute of Social Forestry and Ecology—Allahabad
● G. B. Pant Himdoya Environment and Development Institute—Almora
● Himalayan Forest Research Centre—Shimla
● Indian Forest Research and Education Council—Dehradun
● Institute of Indian Forest Management—Bhopal
● Institute of Indian Plywood Industry and Research—Bengaluru
● Institute of Forest Genetic Tree Breeding—Coimbatore
● Forest Productive Centre—Ranchi
● Institute of Forest Research and Human Resource Development—Chindwara
● Institute of Rainforest—Jorhat
● Institute of Lumbering Science and Technology—Bengaluru
● Institute of National Science & Technology—Faridabad
● Indian Botanical Survey—Kolkata
● Indian Anthropology Survey—Kolkata
● Indian Forest Survey—Jorhat
● Tropical Institute—Jabalpur
Defence Institutes
● Air Force Academy—Hyderabad ● Air Force Technical College—Bengaluru
● College of Military Engineering—Pune
● Defence Management Institute—Sikandrabad
● Defence Services Staff College—Wellington
● Directorate General N.C.C.—New Delhi
● Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School—Baroda
● Hindustan Aeronatic Limited—Bengaluru
● Indian Air Force Training Centre—Chennai
● Indian Military Academy—Dehradun
● Institute of Armament Technology—Pune
● Military College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering—Sikandrabad
● Directorate of National Cadet Core—New Delhi
● National Defence Academy—Kharagwasala
● Naval College of Engineering—Lonavala
● Officers Training Academy—Chennai
Art and Culture
● Institute of National Museum History for Art Conservation and Science Museum—New Delhi ● Allahabad Museum—Allahabad
● Asiatic Society—Kolkata
● Indian Anthropology Survey—Kolkata
● Indian National Archives—New Delhi
● Central Buddh Education Institute—Leh
● Central High Tibetean Educational Institute—Varanasi
● Central Secretariat Library (1981)—New Delhi
● Cultural Institute and Training Centre (1979)—New Delhi
● Delhi Public Library—New Delhi
● Gandhian Recollection and Philosophy Recollection—New Delhi
● Institute of Indian Diamond—Surat
● Indian Museum—Kolkata
● Indira Gandhi National Art Centre—New Delhi
● Indira Gandhi National Human Museum—Bhopal
● Jawahar Lal Nehru Manipur Dance Academy (1954)—Imphal
● Kala Chitra Foundation—Chennai
● Khudabaksh Oriental Public Library—Patna
● Lalit Kala Academy (1954)—New Delhi
● Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Asian Studies Institute—Kolkata
● National Drama Vidyalaya (1959)—New Delhi
● National Science Museum Parishad—Kolkata
● National Modern Art Technique (1954)—Kolkata
● National Library (1948)—Kolkata
● National Museum—New Delhi
● National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Heritage—Lucknow
● National School of Drama—New Delhi
● Nav-Nalanda Mahabihar—Bihar
● Nehru Memorial Museum and Library—New Delhi
● Raja Rammohan Rai Library Foundation—Kolkata
● Ram Krishan Mission Sanskrit Institute (1938)—Kolkata
● Rampur Raja Library—Rampur
● Sahitya Academy (1954)—New Delhi
● Salarjanj Museum—Hyderabad
● Sangeet Natak Academy—New Delhi
● Victoria Memorial Hall—Kolkata
Food and Civil Supply
● Indian Standard Bureau—Delhi ● Indian Examination House—Kolkata
Health and Family Welfare
● Central Health Education Bureau—New Delhi ● National Medical Science Academy—New Delhi
● National Ayurvedic Institute—Jaipur
● National Siddh Institute—Chennai
● National Yunani Institute—Bengaluru
● Morarji Desai National Yog Institute—New Delhi
● National Natural Medical Institute—Pune
● National Homeopathic Institute—Kolkata
● National Ayurvedic Vidyapeeth—New Delhi
● Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd.—Rasoyni (Maharashtra)
Industries
● South India Textile Research Association—Coimbatore ● North India Cloth Research Institute—Ghaziabad
● Silk and Art Silk Mills Research Association—Mumbai
● Indian Jute Industry Research Association—Kolkata
● Wool Research Institute—Thane
● National Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd.—Trombay
● Pesticide Technology Institute—Gurgaon
● Hindustan Antibiotic Ltd.—Pimpri, Pune
● Plastic Engineering and Technology Institute—(Sepate) Chennai
● Indian Bureau of Mines—Nagpur
● National Aluminium Co. Ltd.—Orissa
● Hindustan Zinc Ltd.—Udaipur
Law and Justice
● National Justice Academy—Bhopal ● Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel National Police Academy—Hyderabad
● Lok Nayak Jai Prakash Narain National Crime and Justice Institute—New Delhi
Labour
● Labour Bureau Institute—Chandigarh and Shimla ● V. V. Giri National Labour Institute—Noida (U. P.)
● Central Labour Board—Nagpur
● Director General of Mines Security—Dhanbad
● Central Education Media Institute—Chennai
● Institute of Central government Training and Research—Kolkata
Mass Communication
● Publication Deptt.—New Delhi ● Film Department—Mumbai
● National Film Archieves—Pune
● Indian Committee of Children Film—Mumbai
● Directorate of Publications and Visual Publicity—Delhi
● Directorate of Regional Publicity—New Delhi
● Testimony Board of Central Movie—Mumbai
● Institute of Indian Film and Television—Pune
● Satyajeet Ray Film and Television Institute— Kolkata
Institute of Science and Technology
● Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science—Kolkata ● Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology—Pune
● Indian Astro-physics Institute—Bengaluru
● Jawahar Lal Nehru Developed Scientific Research Centre—Bengaluru
● Indian Institute of Geomagnetism—Mumbai
● Indian Science Academy—Bengaluru
● Indian National Science Academy—New Delhi
● Indian Science Congress Association—Kolkata
● Indian National Engineering Academy—New Delhi
● Indian National Oceanic Information Service Centre—Hyderabad
● Indian Oceanic Technical Institute—Chennai
● National Antarctic and Ocean Research Centre—Goa
● National Biological Science Centre—Bengaluru
● National Institute of Reservation—New Delhi
● Centre of National Cell Science—Pune
● Centre of National Mental Research—Manesar
● National Plant-Genome Research Centre—New Delhi
● National Earthquake Science Data Centre—New Delhi
● Indian Science Academy—Allahabad
● Survey Training Institute—Hyderabad (with the help of U.N.D.P.)
● Bose Institute—Kolkata
● Agarkar Research Institute—Pune
● Sri Chitra Triunal Medical Science and Technical Institute—Tiruvananthapuram
● Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology—Dehradun
● N. N. Bose National Fundamental Science Centre—Kolkata
● Birbal Sahani Institute of Paleo-botany—Lucknow
● Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council—New Delhi
● Science Expansion (Vigyan Prasar)—New Delhi
● Liquid Crystal Research Institute—Bengaluru
● Aryabhatta Research Observatory—Nainital
● Director of Atomic Mineral Investigation and Research—Hyderabad
● Indian Uranium Corporation Ltd.—Jaduguda
● Heavy Water Board—Mumbai
● Nuclear Fuel Campus—Hyderabad
● Bhabha Atomic Research Centre—Mumbai
● Shri Ram Institute of Chemical Research—New Delhi
● Institute for Plasma Research (I. P. R.)—Ahmedabad
● Harish Chand Research Institute—Chennai
● Physics Institute—Bhubaneshwar
● Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre—Kolkata
● Deptt. of Atomic Energy—Mumbai
● Project Directorate, Integrated Coastal and Sea Coast Management—Chennai
● Sea-biotic Resources and Ecology Centre—Cochin
● Hindustan Zinc Limited—Udaipur
● D. N. A. Finger Print and Centre—Hyderabad
● Biotic Resources and Continuous Development Centre—Imphal
● Life Science Institute—Bhubaneshwar
● Physical Research Laboratory—Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
● S. V. National Technical Institute—Surat
● Saha Nuclear Physics Institute—Kolkata (W. Bengal)
● Cosmic Rays Research Institute—Gauribidanow
● Shri Ram Chennai Research Institute—New Delhi
● Tata Institute of Fundamental Research—Mumbai
● Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology—Kocchi
● Institute of Mathematical Science—Chennai
● Institute of Physics—Bhubaneshwar
● National Biology Centre—Bengaluru
● Uranium Corporation of India Ltd.—Jaduguda (Jharkhand)
● Vishveshraiya National Technical Institute—Nagpur
Transport
● Diesel Locomotive Works—Varanasi ● Chitranjan Locomotive Works—Chitranjan
● Rail Coach Factory—Kapurthala
● Integral Coach Factory—Perambur, Kapurthala
● Rail Wheel Factory—Bengaluru
● Marine Engineering and Research Institute—Kolkata
● Marine Engineering and Research Institute—Mumbai
● Lal Bahadur Shastri Coastal Research and Higher Study Institute—Mumbai
● Indian Inland Waterways Authority—Noida
● Maritime Training Institute Powai—Mumbai
● Hindustan Shipyard Limited—Visakhapatnam
● Central Inland Water Transport Corporation—Kolkata
● Civil Aviation Security Bureau—Delhi
● National Aviation Management and Research Institute—Delhi
● Fire Training Centre—New Delhi
● Fire Service Training School—Narainpur (Kolkata)
● Indira Gandhi National Flying Academy—Furshatganj (U. P.)
● Indian Tourism and Travel Management Institute—Gwalior
● National Water Sporting Institute—Goa
Water Resources
● Central Soil and Material Research Centre—New Delhi ● Central Water and Electric Research Centre—Kharagwasala (Pune)
● National Project Construction Corporation Ltd.—New Delhi
● National Hydrology Institute—Roorkee (Uttarakhand)
Welfare
● National Blind Institute—Dehradun ● National Orthopedic Disabled Institute—Kolkata
● Aliyawarjung National Hard of Hearing Institute—Mumbai
● National Mental Disabled Institute—Sikandrabad
● National Rehabilitation Training and Research Institute—Cuttack
● Physically Disabled Institute—New Delhi
● Multi-disabled Strengthen Institute—Chennai
● National Public Cooperation and Child Development Institute—New Delhi
Youth Work and Play
● Rajeev Gandhi National Youth Development Institute—Perambur ● Laxmibai National Physical Education Institute (1957)—Gwalior
Energy
● National Thermal Power Corporation—New Delhi ● Electric Finance Corporation Ltd.—New Delhi
Communication
● Telecommunication Engineering Centre—New Delhi ● National Telecommunication Finance and Management Academy—Hyderabad
● High Level Telecommunication Training Centre—Ghaziabad
● Advance Level Telecommunication Training Centre—Ghaziabad
● Bharat Ratna Bhim Rao Ambedkar Telecommunication Training Institute—Jabalpur
Research Institutes of Forest in India
Forest Research Institute (FRI) Dehradun
Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI) Jodhpur
Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI) Jabalpur
Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB)Coimbatore
Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI) Shimla
Rain Forest Research Institute (RFRI) Jorhat
Institute of Forest Productivity (IFP) Ranchi
Institute of Woods Science and Technology (IWST)Bangalore
Forest Research Centre (FRC) Hyderabad
Centre for Forestry Research and Human Resource Development (CFRHRD) Chhindwara
Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-Rehabilitation (CSFER) Allahabad
Advanced Research Centre for Bamboo and Rattans (ARCBR), Aizawl
Monday, January 2, 2012
First In India
Male
| The first President of Indian Republic | Dr. Rajendra Prasad |
| The first Prime Minister of free India | Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru |
| The first Indian to win Nobel Prize | Rabindranath Tagore |
| The first President of Indian National Congress | W.C. Banerjee |
| The first Muslim President of Indian National Congress | Badruddin Tayyabji |
| The first Muslim President of India | Dr. Zakir Hussain |
| The first British Governor General of India | Lord William Bentinck |
| The first British Viceroy of India | Lord Canning |
| The first Governor General of free India | Lord Mountbatten |
| The first and the last Indian to be Governor General of free India | C. Rajgopalachari |
| The first man who introduced printing press in India | James Hicky |
| The first Indian to join the I.C.S | Satyendra Nath Tagore |
| India’s first man in Space | Rakesh Sharma |
| The first Prime Minister of India who resigned without completing the full term | Morarji Desai |
| The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India | General Cariappa |
| The first Chief of Army Staff | Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singhji |
| The first Indian Member of the Viceroy’s executive council | S.P.Sinha |
| The first President of India who died while in office | Dr. Zakhir Hussain |
| The first Muslim President of Indian Republic | Dr. Zakhir Hussain |
| The first Prime Minister of India who did not face the Parliament | Charan Singh |
| The first Field Marshal of India | S.H.F. Manekshaw |
| The first Indian to get Nobel Prize in Physics | C.V.Raman |
| The first Indian to receive Bharat Ratna award | Dr. Radhakrishnan |
| The first Indian to cross English Channel | Mihir Sen |
| The first Person to receive Jnanpith award | Sri Shankar Kurup |
| The firs Speaker of the Lok Sabha | Ganesh Vasudeva Mavalankar |
| The first Vice-President of India | Dr. Radhakrishnan |
| The first Education Minister | Abdul Kalam Azad |
| The first Home minister of India | Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel |
| The first Indian Air Chief Marshal | S. Mukherjee |
| The first Indian Naval Chief | Vice Admiral R.D. Katari |
| The first Judge of International Court of Justice | Dr. Nagendra Singh |
| The first person to reach Mt. Everest without oxygen | Sherpa Anga Dorjee |
| The first person to get Param Vir Chakra | Major Somnath Sharma |
| The first Chief Election Commissioner | Sukumar Sen |
| The first person to receive Magsaysay Award | Acharya Vinoba Bhave |
| The first person of Indian origin to receive Nobel Prize in Medicine | Hargovind Khurana |
| The first Chinese traveller to visit India | Fahein |
| The first person to receive Stalin Prize | Saifuddin Kitchlu |
| The first person to resign from the Central Cabinet | Shyama Prasad Mukherjee |
| The first person to receive Nobel Prize in Economics | Amartya Sen |
| The first Chief Justice of Supreme Court | Justice Hirala J. Kania |
| The first Indian Pilot | J.R.D. Tata (1929) |
First In India
Female
| The first lady to become Miss World | Rita Faria |
| The first woman judge in Supreme Court | Mrs. Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi |
| The first woman Ambassador | Miss C.B. Muthamma |
| The first woman Governor of a state in free India | Mrs Sarojini Naidu |
| The first woman Speaker of a State Assembly | Shanno Devi |
| The first woman Prime Minister | Mrs Indira Gandhi |
| The first woman Minister in a Government | Rajkumari Amrit Kaur |
| The first woman to climb Mount Everest | Bachhendri Pal |
| The first woman to climb Mount Everest twice | Santosh Yadav |
| The first woman President of Indian National Congress | Mrs Annie Besant |
| The first woman pilot in Indian Air Force | Harita Kaur Dayal |
| The first woman Graduates | Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu, 1883 |
| The first woman Airline Pilot | Durga Banerjee |
| The first woman Honours Graduate | Kamini Roy, 1886 |
| The first woman Olympic medal Winner | Karnam Malleswari, 2000 |
| The first woman Asian Games Gold Medal Winner | Kamlijit Sandhu |
| The first woman Lawyer | Cornelia Sorabjee |
| The first woman President of United Nations General Assembly | Mrs Vijaya Laxmi Pandit |
| The first woman Chief Minister of an Indian State | Mrs Sucheta Kripalani |
| The first woman Chairman of Union Public Service Commission | Roze Millian Bethew |
| The first woman Director General of Police | Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya |
| The first woman Judge | Anna Chandy (She became judge in a district court in 1937) |
| The first woman Cheif Justice of High Court | Mrs Leela Seth (Himachal Pradesh High Court) |
| The first woman Judge in Supreme Court of India | Kumari Justice M. Fathima Beevi |
| The first woman Lieutenant General | Puneeta Arora |
| The first woman Air Vice Marshal | P. Bandopadhyaya |
| The first woman chairperson of Indian Airlines | Sushma Chawla |
| The first woman IPS officer | Mrs. Kiran Bedi |
| The first and last Muslim woman ruler of India | Razia Sultan |
| The first woman to receive Ashoka Chakra | Nirja Bhanot |
| The first woman to receive Jnanpith Award | Ashapurna Devi |
| The first woman to cross English Channel | Aarti Saha |
| The first woman to receive Nobel Prize | Mother Teresa |
| The first woman to receive Bharat Ratna | Mrs Indira Gandhi |
| The first woman to receive Jnanpith Award | Ashpurna Devi |
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